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Capacity, Delays and Demand Management 361
often referred to as “maximum throughput” capacity because of the assumption that the
runway is continuously busy and thus operates at its maximum potential. Note that this
definition recognizes that the actual number, N , of movements that can be performed
during an hour on a runway (or a given set of simultaneously active runways) is a random
variable, i.e., it can take on a range of values with certain probabilities that depend on
the specific conditions at hand. The capacity, C, is then defined as being equal to EN ,
the expected (or “average”) value of N .
Chapter 13 provides more detailed information on the factors that determine the capac-
ity of individual runways or of runway systems. Mathematical models19 and simulation
models have been instrumental in developing an understanding of the “physics” of air-
port capacity and in computing the capacity of a runway system under any given set of
conditions. Such models are also extremely valuable in assessing the impacts of proposed
procedural or technological changes on airport capacity, as well as in airport planning.
General-purpose simulation models of airside operations first became viable in the early
1980s and have been vested with increasingly sophisticated features since then.
In addition to potentially being highly variable from day to day at any single airport
location, capacities span a wide range of values across airports worldwide. Even if one
restricts comparisons to countries with reasonably advanced ATM systems, the capacities
of runways used for mixed (landings and takeoffs) operations range from as low as 20
per hour per runway to as many as 60, depending on such critical factors as the air traffic
control separation standards in use, the mix of aircraft types using the airport and, more
generally, the overall performance of the ATM system (see also Chapter 13). At airports
with a large percentage of wide-body jets in the traffic mix, the upper limit is around
48 - 50 operations per hour. Airports in the USA are generally near the high end of these
ranges, due primarily to using the tightest separation standards and having one of the most
proficient controller workforces in the world. Another indication of the capacity advantage
that US airports enjoy is that about 25 multi-runway airports in the USA routinely achieve
capacities of more than 100 movements per hour under favourable weather conditions20
(good visibility, light winds) whereas only f